Concepts of Intrinsic Value and Integrity of Plants in Organic Plant Breeding and Propagation

ping system, the crop species, and the cultivar. Organic farmers require cultivars that can be multiplied and The natural approach taken by organic agriculture obviates the grown in the organic farming system with no undue use of synthetic agrochemicals and emphasizes farming in accordance with agroecological principles. Also implicit in this approach is an negative effects on the health and function of the agroappreciation for the integrity of living farm organisms, with the integecosystem. Cultivars should therefore have the ability rity being evaluated from a biocentric perspective. The ethical value to perform under low input of organic fertilizers, a good assigned to integrity of organisms has challenged us to develop criteria root system, the ability to interact with beneficial soil for evaluating both integrity and breeding techniques. For cultivated microorganisms and to suppress weeds, and the ability plants, integrity refers to their inherent nature, their wholeness, comto produce a healthy crop and healthy propagules (Lampleteness, species-specific characteristics, and their being in balance merts van Bueren et al., 2002a,b, 2003). with their (organically farmed) environment. We evaluate integrity However, Verhoog et al. (2003) pointed out that the using criteria derived from four different perspectives: integrity of life, naturalness of organic agriculture not only refers to (i) plant-specific integrity, genotypic integrity, and phenotypic integrity. the avoidance of inorganic, chemical inputs, and (ii) to These criteria were used to assess whether existing breeding and propagation techniques violate the integrity of crop plants. In vitro the application of organic, agroecological principles, but techniques and techniques that engineer at the DNA level appeared also (iii) implies acknowledgment of integrity. The gento be incompatible with the integrity of crops, with the exception of eral appreciation for working in consonance with natuuse of DNA markers. On the other hand, breeding techniques that ral systems in organic farming extends itself to the rework at the level of breeding, evaluation, and selection for whole gard with which members of the movement view plant performance, and which do not break reproductive barriers individual species and organisms. Species, and the orbetween species, may conform to the principles of organic farming. ganisms belonging to them, are regarded as having an In the selection process, the so-called breeder’s eye can be developed intrinsic integrity. This integrity exists aside from the to become a more consciously applied instrument for perceiving and practical value of the species to humanity and it can be assessing aspects of the wholeness or phenotypic integrity of a plant. enhanced or degraded by management and breeding Thus, the challenge given by the organic community to breeders implies the further development of scientific approaches, evaluation, measures. This kind of integrity can only be assessed and choice of breeding techniques, and the systematic development from a biocentric perspective (see below). Organic agriof the respectful and artful eye of the individual breeder. culture assigns an ethical value to this integrity, and encourages propagation, breeding, and production systems that protect or enhance it. M cultivars of field-grown crops do not satAfter providing definitions and describing the species isfy all the requirements and demands of organic concept in organic agriculture, our paper will concenagriculture. Therefore, more attention should be given trate on the philosophical and ethical meaning of the to breed specific cultivars adapted to the agronomic third element of naturalness—the integrity of plants— conditions on organic farms and complying with the and will discuss the implications of this concept of integphilosophy of organic agriculture. Organic agriculture rity for organic propagation and breeding schemes. The is often characterized as a natural way of farming, mostly concept of integrity is generally closely linked to the referring to the absence of synthetic chemical inputs, broader concept of intrinsic value. Both concepts are such as chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides usually only applied to the animal kingdom. We will (Anonymous, 1991; IFOAM, 2002). To avoid the use of evaluate how they are used for animals and then apply chemical fertilizers and pesticides in organic agriculture, and adapt them to plants. This analysis will result in agroecological principles are to be applied to enhance an assessment of the naturalness of the various plant the self-regulatory capacity of the agroecosystem. An breeding and propagation techniques and thus of their important tool is stimulating functional diversity at difacceptability for use in organic agriculture. ferent levels of management: The farm level, the cropDefinitions E.T. Lammerts van Bueren and M. Tiemens-Hulscher, Louis Bolk Naturalness, as used in the context of organic crop Inst., Hoofdstraat 24, NL-3972 LA Driebergen, the Netherlands; P.C. production, refers to the avoidance of inorganic, chemiStruik, Wageningen Univ., Dep. of Plant Sci., Crop and Weed Ecology cal inputs; to the application of organic, agroecological Group, Haarweg 333, 6709 RZ Wageningen, the Netherlands; E. principles in crop and farm management; and to respect Jacobsen, Wageningen Univ., Dep. of Plant Sci., Laboratory of Plant Breeding, Binnenhaven 5, 6709 PD Wageningen, the Netherfor the integrity of plants. lands. Received 15 Oct. 2002. *Corresponding author (e.lammerts@ The intrinsic value of plants indicates that a plant is louisbolk.nl). ethically relevant, and has a value of its own, indepenPublished in Crop Sci. 43:1922–1929 (2003).  Crop Science Society of America Abbreviations: CMS, cytoplasmic male sterility; IFOAM, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. 677 S. 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